Music and song in Benin City, Nigeria

By Mark Ighil

Introduction

For if culture is, as Sam Akpabot (1986:91) states that "a way of thinking, feeling and believing in a given society, resulting in a pattern of behavior gives it a distinctive identity that society, "and then an extraordinary plan to learn about the culture of a people is to examine the way we conceptualize his music Wissler's argument (1922: 155). for culture potentials of music is appropriate for our study. He says "music is a stable trait and therefore provides a useful basis for determining the diffusion of other cultural traits "Alan Merriam proposes that:

The music is a product man and has a structure,
But its structure can not have an existence
divorced from the conduct itself that produces
that. To understand why there structure of music as it does
also have to understand how and why the behavior
that occurs as it is, and how and why the concept that the behavior is based are ordered so that
to produce the desired shape especially of organized sound
(1964: 7)
Mainly due to their different environments, more than any other reason, which may come, Africans and Europeans of the notion of music in different ways. Tracey (1960:10), for example, believed that the word "music" in Africa the vowels, the physical manipulation of the instruments and the rhythmic movement and dance associated the music 'means. To get to the real participation of African music in a society, we need as Sam Akpabot is also recommended, to study closely the role of music in religion, government secrecy and various ceremonial societies that regulate the lives of people, without forgetting the role individual and collective musical instruments.

The Society of Benin
Although this document does not assume a re-evaluation of Benin society and culture as this is not a study historical or sociological, but it is important to carry out a summary of the socio-cultural song and music Benin arise. This is because any approach to the songs of the Benin people who ignores the dynamic nature of the society in which attention is likely to be meaningless.
Any discourse formal on any aspect of people and their language must begin with a clarification of the trems "Edo", "Benin" and "Bini", especially what they have become associated with a number of different interpretations. The oral tradition has, by diligence documented by Jacob U. Egnarevba in high-famous book, The Origin Benin, traces the origin of the use of the term "Edo" as the indigenous name for the city of Benin Oba Ewuare (1446 -1473). According to one version Account:
"Edo was a slave then Ohieta
He saved Ewuare of sudden death when
I was about to be arrested by the bosses.
Therefore in order to immortalize the name of the
His friend deified Edo for good service
He did, Ewuare renamed the
City "Edo", according to his friend name … "
(Egharevba 1954:8)
If this account is true, as Rebecca says Agbheyisi (1982: iii), it seems name extension to refer also to the language of the inhabitants of the city, and indeed the Kingdom of Benin was a natural development. One of the names above to territory before this change was Idu Edo, a term that is held in names like Idube, etc Idumwonyi
The other names are also currently associated with the city and the language of its inhabitants, that is, "Benin" and "bini" has an origin in something dark. Again, according to the traditional account

From the time of Ogiso iGod (obagodo)
the ERE, the country was called "igodomogodo"
from the time of the Evian Ogiso Ere, called
"Island" Oranmiyan called "Ile-ibinu" oba Ewedo
(Ie, 1255 -1280) the change of Ubini (Benin)
(Egharevba 1956:3)
Collin has not legun radically different from that recorded by Egharevba. According to

thousand-year reign was known
as igodomogodo (people of the cities) a name that
survived for 300 years or so. Your name ibinu ile
– The land of the affliction bequeated
first of its Obas, Oranmiyan. Later
modified to Ubini and translated in Benin
(1960: 103)
However, if the name of Oba Ewedo for the city "Ubini" is the origin of "Benin" and "Bini", then it would be inappropriate to argue that the use of the city and the language preceding the "Edo", in which case it was intended replacement.
Therefore, there is an obvious sense in which the three names can be used side by side, albeit with some degree of specialization in their references. "Benin" systematically came to be used strictly as a territorial label as in the expression: Benin City, the kingdom of Benin, the empire of Benin, Benin and division, while the other two names, "Bini" and Edo have become predominantly linguistic labels and ethnic concerns in the field of language and the people of the same kingdom of Benin. However, as Agheyisi Rebecca notes, "Edo" has ceased to serve as the name native of the city.
(1982: IV)
While there seems to be agreement on the factor of "Benin" as a territorial label, the question of the place and the nature of "Bini" remains a controversial issue. The Oba of Benin (1992) emphasized that the first chroniclers never referred to people as "Bini" the proceeds, according to the monarch that the rule was known to early historians as the city of Benin, the Kingdom of Benin and the Benin Empire. The people, citizens known as "Edo". Of course, today's indigenous citizens, both in territory and people are known as Edo, hence "Irri Edo" (I in Benin) or "Ovbie Edo" (person Benin). "Bini" according to Oba, slipped through the incorrect pronunciation and spelling of Therefore, not bad for indigenous Edo.
The Edo language is now spoken in almost all the territory bordering the Benin Division of the former Midwestern state Nigeria and has now been demarcated in the Areas of Government ORed, and Orhionmwon Ovia Local. The same area permanently were the basic pre-colonial Benin Kingdom and Empire and its people have always referred to themselves as Ivbi-Edo.
However, it is important to note the ambiguity has also introduced the term in reference "Edo" as a label when it decided to use language as a linguistic communities designed by the group of historically related languages and dialects spoken in different in and around the ancient kingdom of Benin. These languages ​​and dialects include language appropriate Division Edo of Benin, Ishan group of dialects: language and dialect spoken in this Etsako owan and Akoko-Edo Local Government Areas and Urhobo Isoko and related dialects.
Although Northcote W. Thomas refers to speakers of these languages ​​and dialects the "Edo – speaking peoples" in the famous ethnographic report of 1910, did not seem to have resolved the dispute. Westermann and Bryan (1952:87), for example, created its own type of ambiguity when referring to the group as "group of Language BINI" and that the only language Bini. However, noted that the name of Edo is used by some authors (eg Thomas) to cover all the languages ​​of the Group
However, the solution to the problem Naming as Agheyusi (1982) also rightly pointed out can be found in the proposed Ben Elugbe right "Edoid Languages," published in 1979. The clear implication of the positive contribution is being released Elugbe the term "Edo" for use in reference to the same language and the people.
What is important add, at this point that the language of Edo as a ringtone. This being so, the inflection of tone characteristic affects the meaning of the expressions that give the same graphic representation. Benin Many singers make ample use of pitch variations in their songs. Egogo Alagebo is a remarkable example of the estimated land area lot.The Benin is 10,372 square kilometers around, while the 1952 and 1963 population figures for the divisions are given 292,081 and 429,907, respectively (Agbeyisi 1982: IV). In mid 1986 the estimated population was given as two million people (1991 census population, Norborg 1992: 3). co of the population of Nigeria
Society of Benin has a rich oral and written literature. While the former is well known by the people, the latter is developing rapidly. The oral literature of Benin, by definition, depends on the artist as expressed in words in specific occasions. You can say it is a tradition that feeds their pride and passed from generation generation. The literature is portrayed in their costumes, stories and folklore. Proverbs, riddles, jokes, satirical poems of deception and the moonlight-Rhymes also play an important role in the literary life of the people of Benin.
There are two types of communicative events as appropriate to tell the story are recognized by the people. These are Ibota''y''Okpovbie. Osayomwanbo Osemwegie as the iBOT (1992) literally overnight significa''la extension.'' It is a kind of relaxation in the afternoon by the family or a group of people, a mixture of adults and young men and women. They listen to stories and events that have occurred in the United Edo or events that includes planning for community development. In events of history ibot, a person may in the family group to tell a story he knows while others listen intently. The head of the family stories told in presiding over ibot.
The Okpovbie essentially involves playing drums for all night without sleep. The storyteller Okpovbie in Edo is a professional who tells stories with efforts to entertain people until dawn. This type of narrative is very ibot different because the stories are Okpovbie of the most serious and ibot stories. Generally speaking though, the stories are the most common trickster stories Turtle (Equi) and its dubious ways.
Most stories that teach moral lessons and the didactic quality of the stories do serve as a means to improve the morale of the people. They also conduct psychological functions. People with mental, emotional and psychological freedom have their spirit and tension raised, the time to listen to these stories.
A fairly large number of stories have songs (ihuan) on them, and during the course of the narrative of these tales, the stories, the interpreter (or narrator or story teller) sings a song as the audience joins him by repeating the chorus. Not it is rare for both the artist and the audience to clap and dance while singing. This dramatic action suddenly illuminates the function of these is through entertainment. In order to maintain the interest of the audience and make credible his story, the narrator's use of theatrics and other forms of drama.
The functions performed by proverbs (ITAN) and riddles (IRRO) in literary and cultural life of the Edo people can hardly be over emphasized. In fact form the basis of many traditional expressions Benin society. Proverbs can be described as folk sayings or as Uyilawa Usuanlele (1991:3) the indomitable expression dice''una citations incorporate some kind of truth and wisdom in a speech used for or a summary of some points.'' And while some scholars attribute is missing or brevity or shortness of quality of proverbs, this does not get at all times. Proverbs are very crucial for ritual ceremonies, marriage and burial, the court, school talks and other social functions.
Proverbs carry the emotional and moral functions. While some are used for promotion as you wi Ekpene en''Uhunmwun or ha''lo means that the elephant's head never gets lost in the forest, some others are used for counseling and other en''Ikhiavbo etan ne Oyaen''lo which means you never melon growing faster than it grows. This advice is given to young people of good behavior. Some proverbs can see how the protests. To investigate and, sometimes, the actions in question. A notable example is T'ime Ovbie E GbE ma bo (Did I kill the EU?). The proverbial saying that is used to refer to the situation where extremely undeserved punishment (Usuanlele 1991: 8).
Proverbs others are used in prayer to ward off evil, as in "i wi Atet Igho which means you never lose the traditional tray at a party Uhunmwun y''Ebee erhan''que ake you never fear Unfortunately that happens to a bird that is on top of a tree. These expressions are also frequently perfofmance ritual for those seeking protection Divinitas against their adversaries.
Riddles (IRRO) usually appear during the night of relaxation. Raising the question begins: Gbi iro the audience responds diciendo''Aló.''
Iro Gbi :'''' Question
Answer:''Hello''
Questions: Is excavations, but have the tools or hands.
Answer: Urine.
Some enigmas express contrast or relationship between two objects and ideas. Sometimes similar objects are grouped to describe the differences. For example:
Question: Two sisters locked in a room crying, a foodstuff, not the other.
Answer: Although AEAT sugar cane, not the weed.
Riddles, puzzles are very important in literary and cultural life of the people. They, like Lghile (1991: 16) as "the proof of the scope of knowledge of people, making the community aware of various aspects of life."
Art and creativity of the masquerade (Ekpo) are shown in dramatic movements and songs of the artist (s) and the public. The masquerade usually come out in the dry season from his farm to known as "ugbe Ekpo." This place is where all the preparations for the performance are published. Women are not allowed to enter the farm. And the narration, performance up at night. Note that while the popular songs of Benin has lost grip of the past are very much to do with the current reality of Benin society.
A conceptual approach to the song of Benin and Music
Alan P Merriam (1964) gives the music a social and anthropological interpretation, exercise that indirectly promotes the presentation of Mair (1965) that culture is essentially about "the common possession of a group of people who share the same traditions in social terms "(8). He says:

Music exists only in terms of social
interaction and behavior is learned …
This is the behavior of the teachings
individuals and the group of individuals
(27)
As if to give credence to see Merriam while making a case for musical values ​​and changes in social conditions, Kwabena Nketia (1974) notes that:

Knowledge of ….
Music in context social is a prerequisite
both for understanding the contemporary
the music scene in Africa and for
an idea of ​​the musical experience
With regard to Africans in their personal and social life.
(19-20)
Musical concept is important because it determines how music is appreciated and evaluated in a given society. Knowledge of musical concepts, it should be noted, is not synonymous with the verbalization and fulfillment. That the Benin people has not emphasized in "sophisticated" analysis of music (ie, examination of the musical scale and feet), does not mean they are ignorant of concepts such as melody, tempo, tone and rhythm. In fact, there are terms in the language that are technical Bini in the sense of being almost exclusively to the music and people. This restriction or rather not universal element of music should be put in its proper course of its ability to resolve some misunderstandings pronounced. Similar observation Euba (1969) 's is worthy of note. According to him;

In (Traditional) society does not exist a language
the universe of music between people
Nigeria. In other words, each tribe has a
own musical language is often
unique to him and very little musical
on an intertribal communication.
This may be due in part to a
Conservative approach to music

And in part to the use of music
to meet the social needs of the
tribe. You may also account for the
multiplicity of expressions of traditional music-
speech and language and music
tools are in the country.
(476)
In order to fully recognize the popular song from Benin, is necessary to have an idea of ​​how people accept or receive this their particular genre of oral literature, which appreciate the beauty of the song, which is a good music production, what is expected of a composer and so on. However, before heading to Benin musical concepts, is essential to pay attention, by way of distinction, "folk" and popular song.
In his introductory essay to the study of folklore. Alan Dundes (1962:2) attempts to simplify the problem of people for the introductory student. Popular he says, can refer to "any group of people who share at all at least one common factor." Although this observation may be short seen and taken as a simplification of the concepts of sensitive people and folklore, and as characteristic of a particular group are very enlightening. The distinction, in Western music from popular songs, folk songs and art songs in terms of expectations formation, performance and other technicians is noteworthy. As explicitly presented in the Encyclopedia Britannica (1943):

Folk songs are not intended for trained virtuosos
interpreter. Most of them are sung accompanied
or the guitar that is simple accompaniments. They
usually learned by ear and
infrequently written. Are
susceptibly change. Composer of most people-
the songs are unknown, forgotten … Art songs
are intended to perform professionals,
or at least carefully taught singers. The
notes are written by composers known
… The songs Popular stand midway between folk
and art songs with regard to the technique
difficulty, sophistication and endurance
return.
(349)

Perhaps the most total and encompassing approaches to striking conceptual approach is given by George List (1972:363). He sees the "music popular "as the term" loosely applied often to cover all traditional music or broadcast listening, music that is played by ear and by memory rather than written or printed score. "then goes on to highlight some notable features of traditional music, the artist is unaware of its origin and the melody of which exists in several forms. "Popular music," it can not be transmitted by the music scene. How often varied in performance, and sometimes improvisational nature … (Which) is usually a fleeting commercial product for mass consumption rather a tradition known and practiced in a restricted area or a subculture (1971.364). George Herzog 1972:1032) in the states of the same light that people in the "song consists of poetry and music of a group whose literature is perpetuated by the writing and printing, but "through the oral tradition

The Dundes approaches, List and Herzog stresses the commonality of the "popular" and their reliance on the spoken word in front of the writing. Because the society in care (Social Benin set), is largely before reading and writing, the element of writing and oral tradition as the hallmarks of popular and folk songs, respectively, is not too relevant. And since there are rural and urban population on a reciprocal and relational, the distinction between orientation and rural people and popular leaning more civility, not convincing. What is however striking is the location and identity of the composer. In the case of popular songs, neither the author nor the time of origin of the song is known. With this reasoning, therefore, popular songs in Benin say they are lullabies. In popular songs are part compositions whose authors are known in the villages and urban centers. A distinction can also be made subject. "Folk songs are concerned about the issues that can best be called "traditional." As Nketia (1973:1) notes: popular songs are "largely perpetuated via oral and integrates with life, survive or historic pattern of community life ", popular songs, on the other hand, accommodate modern ideas, modern politics and the modern view. Some shots of English and other languages ​​are woven around the songs.
There has been disagreement in the definition of recognized music and the factor of abstraction. Although Willard Rhodes (197:38), for example, notes that "music exists in abstraction, and is composed of tone that has no meaning symbolic, "scholars from non-Western music are opposed to the definition of music as abstract, non-relational long term. Music, they insist, should not be treated as extra-social phenomena. The complex behavior that leads to music production is equally important as the final sound. These behaviors to a large extent condition the acceptance and appreciation of the final product. Merriam (1964) and warns that

The music can not be defined as a phenomenon
sound, as it also involves
behavior of individuals and the group of
individuals and their particular organization
social competition requires people
to decide what can and can not be (30).

The Binis have their own musical style polished singing their culture, language and literacy. For them, music is, among others, in terms of human effort and order. A person who uses or his vocal mechanism to produce music is the song or the hand as instrumental music (Norborg, 1992, 25-end). In any case, to produce meaningful music, there must be a creative blend of form and any organization or pattern that repeats itself. The fact that music is produced by humans to impose order in the sound easily assumes that all persons within a cultural group can do this with the same degree of skill. This brings us to another easily fundamental concept of "musical talent". The Binis are not consistent about how acquired musical ability. There are some who hold the view that talent is inherited from one parent or at least familiar, others believe that talent is acquired by drinking certain medications and others believe that each person is born with the same ability, but the interest and training to determine whether one becomes a musician or not. At the heart of these diverse views is the belief that people are born covered with equal opportunities for acquisition of musical talent, but a background of family and their education and their determination may make him a better musician than others.

Aside from his musical talent, another concept that is fundamental in determining the music production in culture is the source of the music. Again, Merriam (1964) states:

A distinction should do from the beginning
between the ultimate source from which music
origin and the sources of the
people take out a specific musical material.
That is, the ultimate origin of music or
certain types of music can be considered to be the
creation of the gods, for example, while
songs individual in the same society may be
obtained through loans.
(74).

In other words, the possibility of indebtedness and socio-divine brings to light a number of sources of performing music: the supernatural, the individual or the community or through loans. In our brief discussion of "folk" and the song is popular, subtly addressed the origin of the song among the Binis. The music is considered as old as man, as shown in the saying "kobe n 'good agbon ABGONE you a siwuan ke", which literally translated means "from the beginning of man, who has been singing." This clearly implies that the music is so old that it is not always possible to know their origin. However, there is no doubt that the Binis not think the music originates in animals, although animal tales to believe that the divine or supernatural origin of music. Music is seen as the product of human creativity mixed with the interest and training. The way people conceive of the origins of his music is important because it determines the functions of his music and ideas on the property. When the music continues and is taken as the product of humans, either as individuals or as a group, the musicians are more aware of their creative efforts, the need to strive after excellence. With regard to the popular songs of Benin, composers not only meet, but they themselves are aware of their relative fame in society. This leads to strong competition and thus promotes high standards.
Closely related to the origin of music is the concept of ownership. If music is communal property ownership group or individual over time depends on how it originated. The music of the secret societies (kyaagba 1982.38) provides an example list of what is owned by a small circle of initiates and it is taboo to the uninitiated to even try to learn. Lullabies are common property because their authors are unknown. Popular songs, however, are the property of their composer. But the property here, it should be noted, should not be seen in Western terms copyright, because you do not have to apply for permission to sing any song. Private composers themselves and enjoy singing a song from someone else, but for public performances, are kept strictly to his own repertoire. Singing the song of another composer would be a way to recognize the high art of a composer, and the fierce rivalry, but healthy between composers makes this impossible.
Ownership of the music determines the extent to which members of society have access to composition of its musicians. Communal property implies a broader understanding of music, while a situation of copyright restriction limits the range of use. Benin property people do not tie rawness of the music with the composer. No composer ever think of banning the singing of the song, even if I could, as this would be unacceptable for such selfishness of society. Even in cases where records have waxed composers, their songs are still used as if they were covered by copyright laws – in fact, not many people are aware of the existence of such laws.

The place of music is very central to this issue. And his role as the creator of the music can not be overestimated. Nketia (1964) says:

… An understanding of the role, functions,
and the musician's personal life may contribute
to our understanding of their music with respect
what it means for him and for which
enjoy it with him.
(79)
While the musician is not required to possess special qualities, which no doubt requires a good voice, a retentive memory, the ability to create on the spur of the moment and a certain style of story. These skills can be developed and advanced through constant practice. However, the association of dance music that made social and music for their own enjoyment or entertainment of others are common among Benin. They are often hired to show at festivals. Most musical associations specialize in one type of music and dance they perform, regardless of the occasion.

There is a strong sense that the members of an association music can be classified as professional musicians. They are organized into groups that received financial compensation for their services, and have received at least some formal education. In most cases, the instructions may be given by the elders, relatives or other local musicians (Nketia 1975, 51-64). Often, music association leaders serve as instructors seeking to improve their groups to have regular tests. In general, the reputation of a musical partnership can be attributed largely to the leader's ability as a musician, teacher and organizer. Members of this group are generally not full-time musicians, although have other occupations as well, which is generally recognized as professional musicians. In this capacity, is not considered to have either high or low social status. However, individual differences in musical ability is recognized, and a person can enjoy a considerable degree of prestige as an expert. Musical associations have probably existed for many centuries among the Edo. Some social dances are said to be very old and the account of Adam (1966, 114-115) for a social dance performed by women to the accompaniment of "UKUSA" maracas shows that there are groups of musicians and dancers in Benin in the early nineteenth century.
It is well known that the kings and chiefs of Benin have had musicians attached to their courts for centuries. The musicians of the court of the Oba of Benin is divided into five groups: 'Ogbelaka', the 'Igbemagba. the 'Ikpema the' Ikepeziken, and the 'Ikpakohen, each is charged with specific responsibilities in court. They all belong to the Association Iweb Palace (Egharevba 1968: 78-80). The Ogbelaka'-the 'Royal-Bardos dance, sing and play instruments in state rituals as Igue (glorification annual head), the coronation and burial ceremonies of an Oba. They also perform "Ikiewa" that is, to awaken the Oba ceremonially imitating the crowing of a rooster. Living in a neighborhood special 'Igbemagbe' city.The Benin (ie, the 'emaba "performers, ema = drum, jingles made eba = of dry pods ABA) also dance and pay their instruments emeba clapperies bell, Igwe and funeral ceremonies of a Oba. The 'ikpema "(ie" players of the drums' Okpema singular) on the other hand, only play different types of drums. Like the 'Ikpe.iziken "(ie" the players of the eziken; Okpeziken singular ") playing the flute eziken the 'Ikpema" are used in various ceremonial occasions, as the funeral of an Oba Oba and the procession through the city of Benin during certain festivals. The 'Ikpakohen "(ie, players of akoya) Okpakohen unique, finally, playing flutes of ivory and horns are also used in a number of ceremonial occasions, including the coronation of Oba Out of these groups is the 'Okpakha ", Ie players, Okha 'who won the Okha slit drum to summon people to some of the rituals of the state. Musicians are usually cut professional full time. They are organized in groups, receive financial rewards for their services, receive formal training. In addition, most of them have no occupation, but as musicians, their livelihood is supplied by the king or chief whose court they connect.

Conclusion

While the distinctions between folk and popular songs, including, ultimately, there can be thoroughly explored musical concepts Benin and society has undoubtedly been successful in reducing the field of reference and the protection against generalization. The popular song has its basis Benin firm in the oral tradition of the people and Therefore the tasks of their collective consciousness. The composers also are not aware of the need for the traditional approach to their songs would be more easily accepted and appreciated. This explains why the musical concepts that are held by society are important for the study of the songs. It is also necessary to have a resource Alan Merriam (1964: 63) 's identification of a number of concepts such as the distinction between music and noise, musical talent, and the origin of music, production and ownership of music. Note that while the popular songs of Benin has not lost grip on the past, they are very concerned with reality Benin society today

Works Cited

Akpabot, Sam. (1986) Foundation for Traditional Music in Nigeria Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited
Dundes, Alan ed (1965) study of folklore. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall
Egharevba, Jacob. (1954) The origin of Benin. Benin City:. Ethiopian Publishing Corporation.
—— (1956) Benin Benin City Title: Ethiopian Publishing Corporation.
——- (1960) A Short History of Benin, third edition. Ibadan: University Press.
——- (1968) A Short History of Benin, the fourth edition of Ibadan: University Press
The Encyclopedia Britannica (1943) London: William Benton Publisher vol. 1X
Herzog, George (1965) "Stability and how traditional music and cultivated" in the study of folklore. Alan Dundes Eaglewood NJ Ed. Prentice-Hall Inc.
Kyaagba, Jacinto 1982. Tiv popular song: two case studies (a study of the text literary Song (s) Unpublished master's thesis at the University of Ibadan, Ibadan ..
Mair, Lucy. (1965) Introduction to Social Anthropology. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Merriam, Alan. (1964) The anthropology of music. Evanston 111: Northwestern University Press
Nketia, JHK (1964) African Music in Ghana: Accra London: Longman and Arts Council of Ghana.
—– – (1975) music Africa. London: Victor Golland Ltd
Norborg, Ake (1992) musical instruments Edo-speaking peoples of South-West. Nigeria .. Stockholm: Musikmuseets Skrifter 22.
Oring, Eliot. (1986) "The Concept of Folklore" In groups of folk and popular genres. Ed Elliot Oring Legon: Utah State University Press
Tracy, Hugh. (1958) "Towards an evaluation of African Scales" African Music Vol 2, No. 1, 10-20
Usuanlele, Uyilawa (1991) "Proverbs as useful sources for reconstructing the history of colonial Africa with some Bini (Edo) Examples "A Paper Presented at the 10th Annual Conference of the Archaeological Association Nigeria, Ibadan, 10-11 November.
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